Czechoslovakia

Czechoslovakia (Československo), 1918 – 38 and 1945 – 60 Czechoslovak Republic (Československá republika, ČSR), or the Republic of Czechoslovakia (Republika československá, RČS), 1938 – 39 Czecho-Slovak Republic (Česko-Slovenská republika), 1960 – 90 Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (Československá socialistická republika, ČSSR), 1990 – 92 Czech and Slovak Federative Republic (Česká a Slovenská Federatívna Republika, ČSFR) — a historical state in Central Europe with an area of 127,900 km² and population of 15.6 million (1991), capital Prague.

Description

First Czechoslovak Republic, 1918 – 38

The First ČSR (1918 – 38) was one of the first successor states to emerge from the breakup of Austria-Hungary and was declared on 28 October 1918 in Prague by the Czechoslovak National Council (Národný výbor československý) and on 30 October 1918 in Turčiansky Sv. Martin (→ Martin Declaration). Specific conditions for an independent state were created during the First World War by new power structures in Europe. However the important activity of certain politicians in both foreign (Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, Edvard Beneš, Milan Rastislav Štefánik; → Cleveland agreement, → Pittsburgh Agreement) and domestic resistance movements (Karel Kramář, Alois Rašín, Přemysl Šámal; Vavro Šrobár, Milan Hodža, Ivan Dérer and others in Slovakia) also contributed to its foundation. ČSR was made up of Bohemia, Moravia and Czech Silesia (also the smaller territories of Vitorazsko, Valticko and Hlučínsko), Slovakia and, from 1919, Carpathian Ruthenia. The republic’s borders were defined by peace treaties with Germany, Austria and Hungary (Versailles 1919, Saint-Germain-en-Laye 1919 and Trianon 1920) and special treaties with Romania (1920) and Poland (1921). The situation in Slovakia was complicated by the foundation of the Bolshevik Hungarian Soviet Republic (21 March 1919), which refused to recognize Slovakia’s union with the Czechlands, an act which led to a Czechoslovak-Hungarian military conflict. On 1 July 1919, an armistice was signed between the two countries, however, and in the summer of 1919, Czechoslovak troops were able to occupy both Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia, giving them military control over the whole new state. Given the growing efforts of some of the neighbouring states to challenge the Versailles system in central Europe, the new country had to take foreign policy measures in order to protect itself. It thus signed defence treaties with the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (14 August 1920) and Romania (20 April 1921), which led in June 1921 to a political and military alliance of these three states. That this alliance primarily aimed to protect against Hungarian efforts to reestablish the old Hungarian Kingdom was underscored in October 1921, when Czechoslovakia conducted a partial mobilization in response to the second failed attempt by the former king and emperor Charles I (IV.) to reclaim the Hungarian throne. Another important diplomatic breakthrough strengthening the sovereignty of the Czechoslovak state was the Franco-Czechoslovak Treaty of Mutual Assistance (25 January 1924).

In terms of nationalities, ČSR was very mixed: Czechs and Slovaks, who were officially perceived as two branches of one united Czechoslovak nation, made up only 65 % of the whole population, there were approximately 3 million Germans (35 % of the Czechlands), the Teschen region was inhabited by a Polish minority, Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia had a large Hungarian minority (of approximately seven hundred thousand), most people in Carpathian Ruthenia were Ruthenians and there was also a substantial Jewish population. The nationality problem became a fundamental weak point in terms of the state’s domestic stability with the hostile attitude of some Sudeten Germans to Czechoslovak statehood and their irredentist efforts being a source of especial danger; strain in Czech and Slovak relations also became more evident as years passed. Politically, ČSR was a country with a developed parliamentary democracy, division of powers into three branches (legislative, executive, judicial) and a guaranteed constitution (February 1920) based on principles of equality, protection of life, property and personal liberty, guaranteeing freedom of assembly, press, conscience and religious belief. After a period of social and political radicalism (influenced by Bolshevism), economic consolidation began in the early 1920s (ČSR became one of the ten most industrially developed countries in the world) together with the formation of party politics. The dominant political position was soon held by an unofficial group known as Castle (Hrad) led by President Masaryk and his closest advisors, who together represented democratic centrism and had members in all the government parties. The Agrarian Party became the most powerful political party, while other key players were the Czechoslovak Social Democratic Workers' Party (Československá sociálně demokratická strana dělnická), the Czechoslovak People’s Party (Československá strana lidová), the Czechoslovak National Socialist Party (Československá strana národně socialistická), Hlinka’s Slovak People’s Party (Hlinkova slovenská ľudová strana, HSĽS) in Slovakia, with the far left represented by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (Komunistická strana Československa, KSČ). From 1929 to 1933, the Czechoslovak economy was shaken by the Great Depression bringing negative social and political effects including 1.3 million people unemployed.

After Hitler’s rise to power in Germany (1933) followed by that of several other authoritarian regimes across Europe, ČSR became increasingly vulnerable. Together with the German-Polish non-aggression pact of 26 January 1934, Czechoslovakia was also threatened by the restoration of conscription in Germany (16 March 1935), which led the government to try and end international isolation by signing a treaty with the Soviet Union guaranteeing mutual aid (16 May 1935). At home, there were increasing separatist efforts being made by Sudeten Germans (led by K. Henlein) wanting the Czech border country to become part of Germany whilst in Slovakia, the long-term struggle for autonomy was culminating. After the Anschluss on 12 March 1938, there was an increase in incidents along the Czech-German border as well as a buildup of troops on the German side. On 15 May 1938 a manifesto called We Will Stay Faithful was published by prominent figures from Czechoslovak cultural life in defence of the republic; in the same month, however, an increase in German troops along the border (in Saxony, southern Silesia and northern Austria) was observed with the German SS and SA units clearly readying themselves for battle and their air force constantly entering Czechoslovak air space. The command of the Czechoslovak army declared partial mobilization of Czechoslovak defence forces on the night of 20/21 May 1938, a decision which was welcomed by most of Czechoslovak society and acknowledged internationally – and which served as the first serious act of resistance that the German Nazis had had to face since taking power. Despite the fact that the political effects of this mobilization were debatable at best, the Czechoslovak army was able to gain useful knowledge and experience from it. After Hitler’s speech at the NSDAP rally in Nuremberg on 12 September 1938 in which he crudely attacked Czechoslovakia, an uprising of Sudeten German took place in the Czechoslovak borderlands (the so-called Henlein Uprising). During the following days, the international status of ČSR further worsened (with the so-called Anglo-French plan of 19 September), which on 23 September 1938 led to full mobilization being declared; within just five days, over a million men had taken up arms, the overall size of the army reaching nearly 1.5 million. This crisis of September 1938, when the Czechoslovak-German conflict was in danger of developing into open warfare was then tackled on 29 – 30 September 1938 by a conference of the four main European powers (→ Munich Agreement), the results of which basically left Czechoslovakia at the mercy of Germany. President Beneš abdicated on October 5th and emigrated shortly after.

Description

The territory of Czechoslovakia after the Munich Agreement and the Vienna Arbitration, 1938

After Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia’s declaration of autonomy, the period of the so-called Second Republic began (6 October 1938 – 14/15 March 1939), with the country now simply called Czechoslovakia or the Czechoslovak Republic. The first post-Munich government ordered demobilization of the Czechoslovak army (6 October 1938), using its help to evacuate both the Czech-German borderlands (which had been granted to Germany) and Teschen Silesia, now occupied by Polish troops. In Slovakia, German forces 10 October 1938 occupied the Petržalka side of the River Danube (now in Bratislava). Territorial losses culminated on 2 November 1938 with both Hungary and Poland seizing land from Slovakia (Vienna Award); in total, Czechoslovakia had to relinquish 41,098 km² of its territory. This led to rapid diminution of the pluralist nature of the domestic political scene and a move towards totalitarianism. In an increasingly unstable international environment, Czech members of the central government tried to take military action against the Slovak autonomous government, accusing it of separatism. On the night of 9/10 March 1939, martial law was declared in Slovakia as the army seized power across the country, occupied all public buildings and arrested certain members of the Slovak assembly and other public figures in favour of Slovak independence.

Given the situation, preserving the common state became impossible and after just six months of existence, the Second Czechoslovak Republic was irrevocably broken up by Nazi Germany. On 14 March 1939, the Slovak assembly declared a separate Slovak Republic (Slovakia), formally independent but in reality a puppet state of Hitler’s Germany; the next day, occupation of the Czechlands by the German army began and the autonomous (Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia) established as part of the Reich. Carpathian Ruthenia was ceded to Hungary.

Almost immediately resistance at home and abroad began and after the outbreak of the Second World War, Czechoslovak foreign military units were formed, first in Poland, later in France and in the United Kingdom, the Middle East and from 1941 also in USSR, in 1939 the Czechoslovak National Committee in Paris (Československý národný výbor v Paríži) was formed, which in 1940 became the temporary government based in London. This government-in-exile, consisting of President Beneš and a national council, was recognized in 1941 by the Allied powers. Alongside the London headquarters, which was characterized by Czechoslovakism, there was also a strong Czechoslovak resistance centred at the Communist headquarters in Moscow. Influenced by the Red Army’s victorious advance, its growing international importance, and its declared support for the restoration of the pre-Munich Czechoslovak Republic, Beneš signed a new Czechoslovak-Soviet alliance in 1943, known as the Treaty of Friendship, Mutual Assistance, and Post-war Cooperation. At home, all anti-fascist forces participated in the resistance. Over time, a general political shift to the left became evident within society. At first, resistance was brutally suppressed, especially in the Protectorate, but towards the end of the war, activity was revived which in Slovakia culminated in 1944 with the Slovak National Uprising (Slovenské národné povstanie) and in the Czechlands with the May Uprising of 1945.

Description

Territorial extent of Czechoslovakia 1945 – 93, political division from 1969 – 90

During the final stages of the war, Czechoslovak territory became increasingly part of the Soviet sphere of interest, a fact reflected by how the Czechoslovak Communist Party had a dominant role in deciding postwar relations in the new country. Thanks to its initiative, discussions with Moscow in April 1945 led to adoption of the Košice Government Programme (Košický vládny program). After gradual liberation of Czechoslovak territory by the Soviet army (and in the west, the American army), Czechoslovakia was reestablished in May 1945, though without Carpathian Ruthenia, which was annexed by the Soviet Union. Following the Potsdam Conference of 1945 – 46, nearly three million ethnic Germans were forced to leave Czechoslovakia and although a similar exodus of Hungarians was forbidden by the superpowers, there was a substantial population exchange. ČSR then embarked on building a so-called ‘people’s democracy’, generally understood as a combination of democracy and socialism alongside preservation of specific national features and progressive traditions from the past. Ideas of democratic forces based on principles of constitutionalism, parliamentarism, rule of law and equal cooperation with all members of the anti-Hitler coalition came up against Communist plans to create in ČSR socioeconomic and political structures which were Soviet in character and to make of the country a vassal state of the USSR. Thanks to its powerful propaganda, the Czechoslovak Communist Party gained the most votes in 1946, winning the elections in the Czechlands and coming second behind the Democratic Party in Slovakia.

In 1947, political infighting and the struggle for control over the country intensified. The Communist Party manoeuvred in order to create a political crisis and force its non-Communist opponents onto the defensive; following a coup, it then seized power and imposed a non-democratic, authoritarian regime. After the abdication of Beneš, Klement Gottwald was elected president in June 1948. The years that followed then brought mass persecutions (including judicial murders and forced labour camps), confiscation of property, violent collectivization of agricultural land and complete nationalization of industry and commerce. Freedom of press and speech were eroded, religion was suppressed, and science, culture and art were all subordinated to Communist ideology. In terms of state administration, the republic was very centralist: there were Slovak national organs but their powers were limited with the institutions in Prague making almost all the key decisions. Internationally, Czechoslovakia became a firm part of the Soviet bloc, from 1949 a member of Comecon (Rada vzájomnej hospodárskej pomoci, RVHP) and from 1955 of the Warsaw Pact. In 1960, a new constitution was passed which declared that socialism had been built and the name of the country was changed to the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (ČSSR).

Description

Bratislava – August 21^st 1968

The 1960s brought a period of partial liberalization in ideological and cultural areas although economic problems became acute as did the question of Slovakia’s status. Wide-ranging reforms culminated in spring 1968 with an attempt at implementing a system of so-called democratic socialism (socialism with a human face), which was then brought to a violent halt in August 1968 by the invasion of five Warsaw Pact countries. One result of the rebuilding process that followed was a new political system, by which, as of 1 January 1969, the country became a federative state made up of two equal republics: the Czech Socialist Republic (ČSR) and the Slovak Socialist Republic (SSR).

The new Communist administration led by Gustáv Husák from April 1969 ushered in the period of so-called Normalization (1970s and 80s). After purges within the party, the authoritarian system of rule was fully restored with the government given full dictatorial powers. Science, education, culture and art were all subject to the closest scrutiny and their development effectively paralysed. Long-term stagnation manifested itself in all areas of the life of both nations. Citizens who expressed their discontent with the political situation were punished while thousands chose to emigrate. After M. S. Gorbachov came to power (1985) and introduced reforms in USSR, attempts were made by the Communist Party in Czechoslovakia to introduce similar reforms while retaining their monopoly on power.

Dissatisfaction with the Communist regime and long-term political tension came to a head on 17 November 1989, however, with mass demonstrations of people from all sections of society (Velvet Revolution). With no Soviet support, the Communist leaders were forced to surrender their power to the opposition. In December 1989 a new federal government was convened (Marián Čalfa as prime minister), President Husák abdicated and Václav Havel, the main leader of the dissident movement until then, was elected president (29 December). The following year, parliamentary democracy was gradually restored and reforms passed leading to a renewal of the market economy and new state administration. In April 1990, the name of the country was changed to the Czech and Slovak Federative Republic (ČSFR) and the state symbol also changed. At the start of June 1990, the first free elections were held in over four decades with Civic Forum (Občianske fórum, OF) winning in the Czech and Public Against Violence (Verejnosť proti násiliu, VPN) in the Slovak side of the country. During the following period, these parties then broke up into various other parties and movements.

A basic problem then arose with the question of Czech-Slovak relations and the political structure of the new state. Negotiations between Czech and Slovak political representatives (1990 – 92) failed to bring a mutually satisfactory solution. After parliamentary elections in June 1992 in which the Civic Democratic Party (Občianska demokratická strana, ODS) won in the Czechlands and the Movement for a Democratic Slovakia (Hnutie za demokratické Slovensko, HZDS) won in Slovakia, and after repeated negotiations between their leaders, Václav Klaus and Vladimír Mečiar, which brought no real consensus, both sides agreed on division of the federation into two separate states. This solution was approved by both chambers of the Federal Assembly (Federálneho zhromaždenia) and implemented on 1 January 1993 when the independent states of the Czech Republic (Česká republika) and the Slovak Republic (Slovenská republika) came into being.